Islam, Md. Shahidul, Md Ashikquer Rahman, and Akbar Ali Hossain. 2026. “Causal Inference in Econometrics Using Machine Learning: Estimating the Effect of AI and Automation Adoption on Firm Productivity in Europe”. Statistics, Optimization & Information Computing, March. https://doi.org/10.19139/soic-2310-5070-3212.